Editor’s Note:
Simulation and gaming have a special place in learning technologies
because they are interactive and because they allow experimentation and
discovery learning of multi-faceted skills in a close to real-world
environment. Like most skill development, computer simulations benefit
from preparation, guidance, coaching, and debriefing to optimize the
learning experience. The ability to deliver these simulations online
makes them a powerful alternative or supplement to work at a training
site or educational institution.
Computer Simulations in Distance Education
Les M. Lunce
Keywords: Anchored
instruction, distance education, experimental learning, feedback,
interactive practice, problem solving, simulation, virtual reality. IntroductionDistance
education can incorporate many types of media and instructional
methodologies, including computer simulations. Computer simulations can
play a crucial role in distance education because they can provide a
vehicle for “interactive practice” (Berge, 2002). “Interactive
practice” can enable the student to respond to new and changing
information in ways which closely approximate real-life situations.
This type of instructional experience can produce a depth of learning
which is difficult to achieve with other modalities. The
purpose of this paper is to explore the role that computer simulations
can play in distance education. Specifically, the question of whether
computer simulations can contribute to the learning experience will be
investigated. To explore this question, seven cases from current
research of computer simulations in distance education have been
selected. All research presented was conducted by academic institutions
in the United States, Europe and Taiwan between 1997 and 2002. The
development tools employed in these research projects included Java
applets, Asymetrix ToolBook© authoring software, virtual reality and
video teleconferencing. The discussion presented here will focus on the
design methodologies utilized in each project. Discussion or evaluation
of the specific development tools is beyond the scope of this paper. Details of the seven selected research projects are presented under “Current Research” below. DefinitionsThe terms “computer simulations” and “distance education” are used throughout this paper. These terms are defined as follows: Distance education.
An institution-based formal education delivered in a setting or
situation in which the instructor and learner are separated by
distance, by time, or by both time and distance (Simonson, et. al.,
2001). Further, “distance education employs media and technology”,
often the World Wide Web (Web), to facilitate “two-way communication”
between the teacher and the student (Ko & Rosen, 2001). Finally,
“instruction tends to be focused on the needs of the individual
student” rather than addressing students as a group (McIsaac &
Gunawardena, 1996). In distance education, “the student controls”, to a
large degree, location, time, and pace of learning (Evans & Fan,
2002). Computer simulation. A
computer model of a real-life system or process represented in an
abstracted or scaled-down form (Heinich, et. al. 1999; Sternberg,
1999). Users of computer simulations may interact with other people or
with elements of a simulated environment. Computer simulations can be
powerful tools for analyzing, designing, and interacting with complex
systems or processes. Well-designed computer simulations provide a
model of those elements most relevant to the immediate learning
objective. In addition, “they inform the instructor and the learner of
aspects of the real-life system or process that have been simplified”
or eliminated (Heinich, et. al., 1999; Sternberg, 1999). Effective
computer simulations are built upon “mathematical models” in order to
accurately depict the phenomena or process to be studied (Min, 2002).
At the same time, “computer simulations have been found to be most
effective for learning when unimportant aspects of the real-life
situation or process are eliminated from the simulation” (Granland, et.
al., 2000). Why Computer Simulations?Computer
simulations provide a method for checking our understanding of the real
world by modeling the structure and dynamics of a conceptual system or
a real environment. They facilitate “interactive practice” of
real-world skills by focusing on essential elements of a real problem
or system (Heinich, et. al., 1999). Computer simulations can
“communicate complex and technical scientific information” similar to
interactive museum exhibits (Saul, 2001). A well-designed computer
simulation can engage the learner in interaction by helping the learner
to predict the course and results of certain actions, understand why
observed events occur, explore the effects of modifying preliminary
conclusions, evaluate ideas, gain insight and stimulate critical
thinking. Computer simulations can also provide the learner with
“feedback throughout the learning process” (Granland, et. al., 2000).
Because “computer simulations are flexible and dynamic”, they can guide
the learner in the achievement of specific learning goals (Gibbons, et.
al., 1997). Finally, computer simulations permit the learner to
experience or experiment with problems that would be too dangerous or
expensive to explore in reality. The facility to “explore hypothetical
scenarios and test hypothesis” makes computer simulations an important
tool in science education (Forinash & Wisman, 2001). Through the
use of “Java applets” computer simulations can now be delivered over
the Web making them a viable component in the distance learning
experience (Granland, et. al., 2000; Osciak & Milheim, 2001). Computer
simulations do have distinct disadvantages compared with other
modalities. First, because computer simulations are often used with
“problem-based learning” methods, they stimulate learners to immerse
themselves in a problematic situation and experiment with different
approaches (Heinich, et. al., 1999). This type of learning may require
significantly more time than other methods of instruction. Second,
research has shown that, without coaching, the learner gains little
from “discovery learning” from computer simulations (Min, 2001;
Heinich, et. al., 1999). Third, constructivists argue that computer
simulations “oversimplify the complexities of real-life situations”,
giving the learner a “false understanding” of a real life problem or
system (Heinich, et. al., 1999). Finally, development of computer
simulations may involve extensive planning and require significant
investment of labor and financial resources. Current ResearchThe
use of computer simulations in distance education is a relatively new
phenomena and research in this area is limited. Even so there are
ongoing efforts towards developing and studying the use of computer
simulations in distance education illustrated by seven simulation
projects: 1. Open Software SolutionsSharp
and Hall (2000) reported on a case study of a software engineering
course offered through the Open University in the United Kingdom (UK).
Students enrolled in the course interacted with a “multimedia computer
simulation” of a software publishing house. The object of the
simulation was to give students a feel for participating in a software
development team in a realistic workplace setting. The computer
simulation allowed students to make choices based on incomplete
information and to see the consequences of their choices. The learning
objective of the simulation was “anchored instruction”, resulting in a
self-motivated and relevant learning experience (Heinich, et. al.,
1999). The materials presented in the computer simulation were
supported and supplemented by a course pack of printed materials sent
to each student. The course pack contained basic information while the
computer simulation provided challenging applications of basic
knowledge and skills. In addition, each student was assigned to a tutor
/ coach who offered support and guidance by email or telephone. Feedback
is an essential element in any learning experience (Gagne, et. al.,
1992). In the case of the software publishing house computer
simulation, a significant feedback element was provided by the
simulation software itself. This feedback was presented to the student
in the form of suggested solutions to sample problems. To
gauge the effectiveness of the simulation, the authors collected user
feedback through questionnaires and usability studies. Although results
were mixed, in general students viewed the computer simulation as
engaging and easy to use. Positive responses to the simulation focused
on the inclusion of real-world case studies. Negative responses
addressed the relevance of the simulation’s multimedia interface to the
course and the amount of time required to work through the course pack.
The
distance education course discussed by Sharp and Hall (2000) is the
subject of ongoing study. The efficacy of computer simulations in
distance education courses is supported by data indicating that
students recognized and valued the real-world learning experience
facilitated by the simulation. 2. A VR-enhanced Computer SimulationSome
researchers and educational practitioners have explored the use of
virtual reality (VR) in distance education as a means of facilitating
constructivist learning activities (Briggs, May, 2002; Miettinen,
2002). Sung and Ou (2001) reported on a Web-based computer graphics
course in which VR technology was incorporated into a computer
simulation. The goal was to increase learning effectiveness. The
computer graphics course was offered through the Department of
Electrical Engineering, National Central University, Chung-Li, Taiwan. http://www.ncu.edu.tw/English/.
The authors asserted that learning acquired by students through a
VR-enhanced computer simulation was more meaningful because it was
derived from the student’s own exploration of the simulation
environment (McLellan, 1994). Preliminary
analysis of the effectiveness of the VR-enhanced computer simulation
was determined by administering a pre-test and post-test both to
students who used the simulation and students who used more traditional
learning systems. Test results indicated that students who used the
VR-enhanced computer simulation scored higher on practical examinations
(post-test). The authors also observed that students who had access to
the VR-enhanced computer simulation returned frequently to the course
Web site to refresh their skills. In addition, these students were
observed to retain a higher level of cognitive knowledge than students
who had not used the simulation. Students reported that using the
VR-enhanced computer simulation was a rewarding and positive
experience. Further, students viewed the simulation more as a computer
game with instructional value than as a homework assignment. As a
result, students were willing to devote more time working in the
VR-enhanced computer simulation than they would have allocated to more
traditional study. The
authors concluded by stating that VR-enhanced computer simulations
provided students with “experiential learning” (Sung & Ou, 2001).
This type of high-level learning was possible because the simulation
involved the student in active completion of specific tasks and complex
operations. Research has shown that students involved in “experiential
learning” tend to remember 90% of what they encounter in the course of
the learning activity (Heinich, et. al., 1999). If VR-enhanced computer
simulations can provide this type of learning experience over the Web,
then they may have a place in distance education (Ryhme, 2002). 3. Java Applet-based Micro WorldsA
variety of technologies may be used to deliver computer simulations
through distance education. Min (2001) reported on an ambitious project
conducted at the University of Twente in the Netherlands, http://www.utwente.nl/en/,
in which Java applets were used to deploy computer simulations to
students in an array of distance settings. These Java applet-based
computer simulations, referred to as, “micro worlds”, were designed to
be downloaded over the Web (Min, 2001). The
computer simulations developed by Min and colleagues were strongly
grounded in constructivist learning theory and Vygotsky’s “Zone of
Proximal Development” (ZPD) concept (Sternberg, 1999; Miettinen, 2002).
Min stated that these were model-driven stand-alone simulations as
distinguished from instructional or tutorial courseware. The computer
simulations were designed to fulfill the rolls of in-class
demonstration, coached learning, individual discovery learning,
interactive practice, and assessment. Of equal importance, the computer
simulations provided a vehicle for evaluating whether students
successfully applied what they had learned to practical problems. Min
also stressed the vital role computer simulations played as a feedback
channel for the instructor. Min
stated that successful application of computer simulations demanded
“coached learning, two-way communication, feedback, demonstrated
ability of the student to form sound hypotheses, access to appropriate
manuals, written assignments and well-designed printed materials”.
Without these elements, the computer simulations could not have
achieved their instructional goals. Min observed that the more time
students spent working in the computer simulations the more the
students learned. However, Min also noted that if the student used the
computer simulations without coaching, the result was often ineffective
practice. Further, if the student interacted with the simulations
without first mastering the appropriate problem related skills, the
interactive practice often resulted in null or incorrect learning. The
computer simulations developed by Min and colleagues supported
discovery learning through the use of cases and scientific experiments.
Each case was presented to the student in print format with the
essential dynamic elements of the case portrayed by computer
simulations. The student was directed to construct and test a
hypothesis, and manipulate one or more parameters of the computer
simulation until the simulation model behaved normally. Scientific
experiments were designed to resemble vocational practicums in which
the student measured specific variables with the goal of attaining a
certain insight. Results of the experiment were recorded by the student
in an electronic or paper worksheet. The student then constructed
charts or used other graphic representations to visualize the results
of the experiments. Finally, the student evaluated the resulting visual
representations with the goal of gaining insight into a real-world
phenomenon. While
Min did not report quantitative data on use of Java applet-based
computer simulations in distance education courses, the potential of
the technology is clear. Given the relatively small file sizes of Java
applets and the ease with which they can be accessed through the Web,
the Java applet computer simulations described by Min may be applicable
to a wide range of distance education situations. 4. “Chernobyl”, “C3 Fire” and “ERCIS”The
Web may prove to be the most functional vehicle for “delivering
computer simulations to students at a distance” (Simonson, et. al.,
2001). Granland, Bergland and Eriksson (2000) reported on the
development of three Web-based computer simulations for distance
education, conducted in the Department of Computer and Information
Science, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden. The authors focused
on the relationships between Web-based computer simulations and
instructional strategies appropriate to simulation-based learning
environments. A number of learning methodologies for which computer
simulations may provide optimal learning outcomes were presented. These
methodologies included problem-solving, demonstration, experimentation,
exploration and hypotheses testing. The three computer simulations presented by Granland, Bergland and Eriksson were named, “Chernobyl”, “C3
Fire” and “ERCIS”. All three computer simulations were implemented
using Java applets. The “Chernobyl” computer simulation was designed to
teach basic operations of a nuclear power plant as well as rule-based
modeling. The simulation introduced plant operations and allowed the
student to deal with certain malfunctions which can occur during the
course of normal plant operation. The “Chernobyl” simulation included
three prewritten cases and one random case in which events were not
determined in advance. While the simplified physics model on which the
simulation was built was inaccurate, the simulation did familiarize the
student with the dynamics of a real-world situation. The “C3 Fire” computer simulation was designed to present “Command, Control and Communication” (C3 Fire)
problems in a Web-based learning environment. The goal of the
simulation was to let the student experiment with various strategies
for team training, coordination and situation-awareness. The metaphor
for the simulation was fighting forest fires and included fire fighting
units, vegetation, houses and other simulated agents. Fire-fighting was
used merely as a vehicle to demonstrate the problem solving principles
inherent in team management. “C3 Fire” was designed
to allow the learner to experience some of the dynamics present in a
real-world emergency situation. To facilitate this, the fire-fighting
scenario played out by the simulation changed autonomously and in
response to the learner’s actions. The simulation maintained a detailed
log of the learner’s actions and reactions to the changing scenario.
This log was later used by the instructor to evaluate the learner’s
performance. “ERCIS” and “C3
Fire” both utilized a team distance learning environment as opposed to
a single user simulation demonstrated in “Chernobyl”. “ERCIS” (group
distance exERCISe) simulated certain key aspects of the RBS-70 unit of
Swedish Anti-Aircraft Defense. The goal of “ERCIS” was to provide
“training” with equipment and procedures related to the RBS-70 unit
(Noble, 2002). The simulation abstracted some aspects of the RBS-70
technology, focusing rather on key functions and operation parameters
relevant to group activity in a real-world combat setting. All
three simulations presented by Granland, Bergland and Eriksson shared
the goal of helping the learner distinguish between conceptual and
operational knowledge. Subsequent to observation and evolution of the
simulations, the authors concluded that the “Chernobyl” simulation
provided the learner with a good understanding of the underlying model
upon which the simulation is built. The “C3 Fire”
simulation allowed the student to learn about various aspects of a
dynamic situation where the model underlying the simulation was not the
focus of instruction. The “ERCIS” simulation facilitated mastery of
operational knowledge in a situation where the concepts and user
interface of the simulation model closely resembled a real-world
setting. All three simulations focused on discovery learning in which
the student explored the simulation environment, collected data,
analyzed information, and made informed decisions in order to acquire
knowledge. Further, the simulations were designed to emphasize
affective learning, incorporating as much motivation appeal as
possible. Although
all three computer simulations were designed for use over the Web in a
distance education setting, the authors stressed the need for
teacher-guided learning and instructional feedback (Nator, et. al.,
2002). While the authors presented no data in support of their
research, they asserted that Web-based computer simulations have two
key advantages for distance education. The first and most obvious
advantage is that computer simulations built with Java applets are
easily and widely accessible to any student with Internet access. Java
applets can provide the flexibility to “address different learning
styles and provide access to a variety of media elements” (Roccetti
& Salomoni, 2001). Second, and more importantly, computer
simulations can present the learner with opportunities to experience
dynamic and interactive environments. The value of “experiential
learning” has been well documented in the literature (Heinich, et. al.,
1999). If well-designed, model-based computer simulations can be made
available over the Web, students in distance settings can engage in
“real-world problem-based learning” (Notar, et. al., 2002). 5. “MODEM”Hensgens, et al, (1998) reported on the “MODEM” project (Multimedia Optimisation [sic] and Demonstration for Education in MicroElectronics) http://www.ecotec.com/sharedtetriss/projects/files/modem.html,
an effort to support active learning through the use of computer
simulations in a distance learning setting. “MODEM” was developed at
the Research Institute for Knowledge Systems(RIKS bv), Maastricht, The
Netherlands. The goal of the “MODEM” project was to allow students to
acquire complex knowledge and skills relevant to the microelectronics
industry through experience with professional microelectronics modeling
software tools. Through hands-on experience with real-world tools in a
simulated work environment, students were able to explore and
experience the key concepts of microelectronics modeling. The
“MODEM” simulation incorporated access to real-world software tools
which ran on a server. This was facilitated by a software bridge which
connected desktop PCs at a distance to a UNIX server using the
PC-X-server, HCLeXceed. Multimedia and hypermedia were extensively
utilized throughout the “MODEM” simulation to support constructivist
learning, interactivity and maximum learner control. The simulation
promoted learning by doing; students were free to make mistakes and
acquire knowledge from solutions they developed. Further, the “MODEM”
computer simulation motivated students to build and test their own
hypothesis acquiring high-level knowledge through development of
complex problem-solving skills. Finally, because the “MODEM” simulation
was delivered over the Web, it eliminated the same-time same-place
constraint present in more traditional microelectronics instruction. The “MODEM” simulation software was developed using Asymetrix ToolBook © authoring tool http://www.asymetrix.com/en/toolbook/index.asp
and designed to run in either Netscape or Internet Explorer Web
browsers. Synchronous communication among students and between students
and teachers were facilitated with Microsoft’s NetMeeting© software http://www.microsoft.com/windows/netmeeting/.
The whiteboard functions of NetMeeting were used extensively for
feedback and collaborative work. While the “MODEM” simulation was
designed to provide the learner with full control over the course
materials, extensive feedback and coaching were provided through
NetMeeting. The authors stressed that coaching and guidance were
essential to prevent the learner from becoming lost in the simulation. Evaluation
of the “MODEM” computer simulation was conducted at the University of
Leeds and the University of Twente. Data was collected by administering
usability questionnaires to a small group of software testers. The
authors reported an overall positive response to the simulation,
although no quantitative data were provided. Subsequent testing was
carried out with students, all of whom were experienced computer users.
Upon completion of the microelectronics course, the students were asked
to complete the same usability questionnaires previously presented to
the software testers. Once again, the authors reported very positive
student response to the simulation, but provided no supporting data. In
particular, students commented most favorably about instructor feedback
made possible by the NetMeeting software. Although some technical
communication problems did arise during the course, students worked
around these difficulties and did not consider them a negative aspect
of their experience with the “MODEM” simulation. The
authors emphasized that the “MODEM” simulation was unique because it
incorporated access to real-world resources and was built partially
around existing software, i.e. NetMeeting. That part of the simulation
constructed with ToolBook was designed to bring the preexisting
software packages together under a coherent user interface, provide
consistent and relevant feedback, and give students complete access to
all course materials. The ToolBook user interface also facilitated note
taking and collaborative work. The authors stated that “MODEM”
represented a viable and cost effective approach to the development of
computer simulations. 6. Computer Simulation Using Video TeleconferencingComputer
simulations can be incorporated into a wide variety of distance
education situations. The medical education community has investigated
the use of computer simulations incorporating “video teleconferencing”
to supplement traditional face-to-face instruction (Heinich, et. al.,
1999; Jacobs & Rodgers, 1997). These efforts have been motivated by
the constantly expanding curriculum of most medical training programs.
At the same time, educators have investigated ways of getting medical
students more actively involved in their own learning (Levison &
Straumanis, 2002). Cooper,
et. al., (2000) reported on a realistic medical simulation project
conducted by the Center for Medical Simulations, Boston, MA. The first
phase of the project was carried out at Massachusetts General Hospital
on May 22, 1997. The project consisted of several two-way, interactive
seminars in which medical cases were presented to large audiences at
widely dispersed locations. Although the primary information delivery
medium in this project was video teleconferencing, computer simulation
was used for medical telemetry. According
to the authors, these medical simulations were focused on the goals of
allowing students to see the effects of their actions in real-time, to
enhance learning by facilitating concurrent presentation and discussion
and to facilitate student participation at a distance. The simulations
made it possible for students to conduct hypotheses testing in
real-time and discover cause-and-effect relationships which more
traditional instructional methods might have rendered less apparent. An
added benefit was that students were able to “observe and interact with
medical equipment which was in limited supply or inaccessible for
viewing by large groups” (Forinash & Wisman, 2001). Although
the authors did not conduct a large-scale assessment of the simulation
project, a survey instrument was administered to one of the largest
audience groups to assess user reactions to the methodology. Survey
responses were generally enthusiastic with regard to the technology,
although some respondents questioned the cost-benefit ratio. Further
experimentation with this type of simulation has been held back due to
the high bandwidth requirements of video teleconferencing. However, the
development of streaming video may facilitate future research projects
of this type. The authors stressed the need for development of
additional simulations so that more comprehensive data could be
collected as to the methodology’s efficacy.
7. Assessment Instrument for Computer Simulations in Distance EducationA
number of research projects have been presented in which computer
simulations have been incorporated into open or distance-learning
venues. Although the authors of these projects have attested to their
success, their claims have not been supported with quantitative data.
The need for reliable assessment instruments for evaluation of computer
simulations is warranted. Dean
and Webster (2000) examined an interactive computer simulation in the
context of a distance education business degree course. Their goals
were to develop an instrument to assess whether computer simulations
motivate “high quality learning”, and to determine whether computer
simulations impact student’s ability to transfer knowledge to the
real-world. High quality learning is essential for moving the student
to a state of “metacognition” where the student takes responsibility
for his/her own learning (Sternberg, 1999). The authors asserted that
the variable and inconclusive results obtained with existing assessment
instruments pointed to the need for new assessment tools geared toward
computer simulations in distance settings. Because computer simulations
tend to focus on the student-centered learning, the authors stated that
any new assessment instrument needed to be more focused on
student-related factors. The
computer simulation used in this study was designed to support
development of cognitive models, provide interactive practice,
encourage hypothesis formation, hypothesis testing, experimentation and
mastery of concepts through application of knowledge to real-world
problems. The simulation involved the student in theory-and-practice
exercises with the goal of enabling the student to apply acquired
knowledge to realistic work environments. The simulation software was
built on a decision support system and tutorial which encouraged the
student to apply acquired knowledge to work-based decision making.
Interactive practice was achieved by allowing students to make their
own decisions through a series of scenarios presented by the
simulation. Students received feedback about their decisions and
guidance with regard to factors not considered. Direct face-to-face
interaction with instructors or other students was very limited during
the study. Most feedback came to the student through the simulation. The
authors conducted an assessment by distributing survey instrument to
150 students who had completed the business course using the computer
simulation. Detailed quantitative results presented by the authors
indicated that current computer simulations do not promote transfer of
knowledge to a greater degree than other methodologies. In short,
computer simulations as currently constructed for distance education do
not appear to facilitate transfer learning of acquired knowledge to
real-world situations. At the same time, survey results indicated that
students responded positively to the high degree of interactivity. In
this regard, computer simulations do appear to have a positive impact
on students’ motivation to study. The
authors encouraged others to develop similar instruments for assessment
of computer simulations delivered to students at a distance. However,
the authors cautioned that such instruments should be carefully crafted
to focus on student-related factors as well as factors pertaining to
cognition, transfer learning and motivation. ConclusionsThe
goal of this paper has been to investigate current developments in the
use of computer simulations in distance education. Seven research
projects have been discussed to ascertain whether computer simulation
may constitute a viable component in distance education. The tools
utilized by these research projects for the development of computer
simulations included Java applets, Asymetrix ToolBook© authoring
software, virtual reality and video teleconferencing. For the purpose
of this paper, discussion of these research projects has focused on the
design methodologies employed rather than the specific development
tools. Further, while a variety of media were presented for “delivery
of computer simulations”, a comprehensive inventory of delivery options
was not attempted (Evans, & Fan, November 4, 2002). Seven
applications of computer simulations in distance education settings
have been presented. Sharp and Hall (2000) reported that students in an
engineering course offered via distance education responded positively
to a computer simulation of a software publishing company. Students
found real-world case studies presented through simulation engaging and
easy to use. In
another distance education setting, Sung and Ou (2001) administered a
pre-test and post-test to students in a computer graphics course to
gauge the effectiveness of a VR-enhanced simulation. Test results
indicated that students who used the VR-enhanced computer simulation
scored higher on practical examinations (post-test). The authors also
observed that students who made frequent use of VR-enhanced computer
simulation retained a higher level of cognitive knowledge than students
who did not use the simulation. Finally, the authors reported that
student response to the VR-enhanced computer simulation was positive as
demonstrated by willingness to devote more time working in the
simulation than to more traditional study methods. Min
(2001) discussed Java-applet-based computer simulations which supported
discovery learning through the use of cases and scientific experiments.
These applets were designed to facilitate experiential learning and the
application of knowledge to real-word problems. The applets also
augmented feedback and assessment of student performance. While no data
were reported, the author made a solid case for the efficacy of
Java-applet-based computer simulations in distance education. Granland,
Bergland and Eriksson (2000) reported on three Web-based computer
simulations for distance education. These simulations facilitated
discovery learning in which the student explored the simulation
environment, collected data, analyzed information, and made informed
decisions in order to acquire knowledge. The authors asserted that
well-designed, Web-accessible, model-based computer simulations can
allow students in distance settings to engage in real-world
problem-based learning. Hensgens,
et al, (1998) presented “MODEM”, a microelectronics course computer
simulation for distance education which incorporated access to
real-world resources and was built partially around existing software.
The simulation was evaluated by collecting data from usability
questionnaires administered to software testers, and subsequently to
students. The authors reported an overall positive response to the
simulation, but provided no detailed data. Cooper,
et. al., (2000) reported on a medical simulation project which
incorporated video teleconferencing. The goal of the project was to
help motivate medical students to take a more active role in their own
learning. The simulation permitted students at a distance to conduct
hypotheses testing in real-time and discover cause-and-effect
relationships. A survey instrument was administered to one group of
distance students to gauge reactions to the simulation. The authors
reported that student responses were generally positive. Dean
and Webster (2000) examined an interactive computer simulation in the
context of a distance education business course with the goal of
developing an assessment instrument. The instrument was designed to
measure the degree to which computer simulations motivate high quality
learning, and to determine whether computer simulations impact
student’s ability to transfer knowledge to the real-world. The authors
reported detailed results obtained from a survey instrument distributed
to 150 students. Data indicated that use of computer simulations in
distance education do not promote transfer of knowledge to a greater
degree than other methodologies. However, data did appear to support
the author’s claim that computer simulations can have a positive impact
on students’ motivation to study. Granland,
Bergland and Eriksson (2000) reported no data on the simulation they
discussed. However, authors of the other six projects reported positive
responses to the computer simulations they studied. Such positive
responses from students indicate that computer simulations can
contribute to the learning experience in distance education. Further
data collection, observation and assessment are essential for
determining the best use of computer simulations in distance education.
The
application of computer simulations in distance education is a new area
of study which seems to hold the promise of high-quality learning.
While innovative and intriguing research is currently ongoing, future
research efforts should be focused on several specific areas. First,
there is an apparent lack of quantitative data on the efficacy of
computer simulations in distance education settings. Further studies
need to be conducted using larger treatment and control groups. Second, the functionality of various development tools should be investigated. Third,
development of computer simulations can be expensive and
time-consuming. Knowing which tools can provide the shortest
development cycle while still resulting in the highest quality
simulations will be important. Fourth, the development of computer simulations in the humanities or social sciences distance education should be documented. Finally,
more effort should be devoted to developing assessment instruments that
accurately measure the efficacy of computer simulations in distance
education. The
benefits of “high-quality learning”, which simulations can provide to
the student, are well documented in the literature (Forinash, &
Wisman, September, 2001). However, further research will be essential
in ascertaining the degree to which the instructional benefits of
computer simulations may be extended to distance education. ReferencesBerge, Z. L. (Summer, 2002). Active, Interactive and Reflective eLearning. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 3(2), 181-90. Briggs, J. C. (May, 2002). Virtual Reality is Getting Real: Prepare to Meet Your Clone. Futurist, 36(3), 34-42. Cooper,
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Les Lunce | Les Lunce
has over 20 years experience in information technology. His background
includes programming, Web content developer, multimedia courseware
developer, computer lab manager, instructor, technical support and
administrator. Currently
he is employed by North Lake College, Irving, Texas, teaching
Internet-based courses in Flash, JavaScript and Microsoft FrontPage. In
May of 2003 he completed his MS in Computer Education and Cognitive
Systems through the College of Education (COE) at the University of
North Texas (UNT). Currently he is pursing a Doctorate in Educational
Computing through COE at UNT. His
research area is the use of immersive and non-immersive virtual worlds
for instructional simulations. His major professor is Dr. Mark
Mortensen, 940-565-4130, markmort@unt.edu |
|
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